# Isotopes and Mass Numbers Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. This fact isn't one to be scrutinised - we already know that these are the particles that constitute an atom, with sub-atomic particles like quarks and "gluon flux tubes" making them up. Chemists have ways of writing things up - with all the maths either skipped or mostly circumvented, of course! Here's an example of a helium atom: $He^4_{2}$ The total number of neutrons and protons are listed as the number above and the proton number (which is also representative of nucleon charge) is the subscripted number. This format can be generalised into: $X^Z_{A}$ Where: - $X$ is the atomic symbol - $A$ is the proton number of the isotope - $Z$ is the mass number of an isotope # Expressing Ionisations Ionisations in a molecular context don't even mean forming a stable ions - it typically refers to an atom losing one electron. Using our knowledge of $X --> X^+ + e^-$ $X^+ --> X^{2+}+e^-$ %%orbital diagram of the levels%% //MAKE SURE TO CONSOLIDATE THIS! am doing as priority //BRIEFLY MENTION ORBITALS AND REFER TO SECOND DOC //nuclear isotopes and astrophysics $F = \frac{kq_{1}q_{2}}{r^2}$ This is important as a plasma consists of bare nuclei which have had their electrons stripped from them. Nuclei are always positively charged and thus must repel. Isotopic Chart of the Nuclides: --> x axis are protons --> y axis are neutrons (which denote isotopes) ![[Pasted image 20230707100652.png]] atomic mass: $A = N+Z$ nuclei have to overcome the "coulomb barrier", the electrostatic repulsion between them. this means they need to be high-energy enough to do so. Hydrogen fusion happens in the sun's at 14000000 K (and even then nuclei cheat through quantum tunneling) # de broglie wavelength chem ver. This is a physics concept!!! This is a physics concept!!! Mad ramblings aside, pretty important concept in chemistry. I can't go over the derivation for the equation as I don't have a good background in relativity - though I'll figure it out, I promise! $E = hf$ I AM NOT USING NU FOR FREQUENCY EITHER for more on the stupids plank constant check out [[Blackbody Radiation (Thermodynamics)|what can only be assumed...]] for more on wavs check out my 'basic' waves doc [[Waves Foundations]] i will also be rewriting this doc if you didn't know # Extended - The Bohr Model and Beyond Niels Bohr realised we could standardise $E = -\frac{Z^213.6eV}{n^2}$ where $n$ is the [[Orbitals and Excitations (Chem)#Ground State - Orbitals|orbital level]] of the electron and $z$ is the atomic number (mass number). This gives us the energy for each orbital jump! Note the number 13.6 in the equation - this is the hydrogen ground state ionisation consant, whi